British Government
AP Comparative Politics

British Political and Social History:

· Britain’s geographical layout has allowed her to remain remarkably autonomous over her long history. Her island nature has kept her largely free from invaders and the setbacks and harm that go with that distinction.

· However, it is invasions of this very sort that will give Britain her 1,500 year history.

· Waves of invaders will finally conquer the North Sea and Atlantic Ocean and bring with them culture…a concept largely foreign to the isolated island.

· Celts, Romans, Angles, Saxons, Danes, and Normans will invade her landscape and forge her history.

· The first groups brought with them language, the language of the Anglos, these earliest of the Germanic travelers were referred to as Anglo’s and Saxon’s. These Anglos and Saxons will serve to destroy much of the land and it’s heritage by pushing the Celts back to the Scottish region of the landscape. Many Celts fled to nearby France where they transferred their name to Brittany, they also held their hostility for the French.

· A group of Norseman Danish Vikings settled in France they called themselves Normans and established the province of Normandy. It is here that English history will change dramatically as William leader of the Normans (of Normandy) will attempt to challenge for the disputed throne of England in 1066, he will defeat disputed English King Harold at the famous battle of Hastings. A dramatic change will be in store for English History.

· William the Conqueror as he will soon come to be known will replace the entire Saxon ruling class with Normans of his choice. This Norman Conquest also explains the large number of French words in the English Language.

· Domesday Book, a royal account of ownership and tithes to all lands on the island, it will become a basis for government and will continue feudalism. It will provide a detailed tool for governance.

· The Normans brought to England a new system of economic and political coexistence that will become feudalism.

I. What is Feudalism?

A. Perhaps a more appropriate question to ask is not necessarily what it is but rather what it is not?

1. Often times it is synonymous with Aristocracy, and in a sense the lords were aristocrats but the aristocracy was not feudalism.

2. Feudalism is not simply the relationship between the lord, the vassal, the serf, and the fief.

a. An example of a hierarchy of a Medieval Feud:

Lord

Wealth

Vassal Vassal

				Power

Clergy Clergy Clergy

Knight Knight Knight Knight

Serfs Serfs Serfs Serfs Serfs Serfs Serfs Serfs Serfs

3. The feud is not simply an economic structure of dependency, it is also more than an agricultural unit.

4.

Culture/Social

However, what it is, is this, all of the above combined with the notion of political government, the ties that bind form a political arrangement that marked Middle Age Europe. When the rights of the lords/vassals are all tied in with it’s influence toward political government then you have a concrete definition of Feudalism. Here is another Graphic.

II. Feudalism as a political unit:

A. It is a form of government, where political authority is monopolized by a group of economic military leaders.

1. What is unique is that power is distributed evenly amongst their leaders, the power however is exercised in an inconsistent fashion.

2. He must share power with his equals and he must also grant power to his subordinates, see hierarchy above.

3. In a sense this is a fairly effective system for governing fragmented decentralized states. Because under Feudalism it is very hard for anyone even a king to rule a wide territory in an abusive or autocratic fashion.

4. Feudal Lords have the capability of ensuring that the needs of their people are met by actually creating of network of goods and services, mills, stores, supplies etc…

5. The wise feudal lord also keeps a very small percentage of actual land for himself, because this is a system based on mutual obligations. The only way for the lord to acquire the obligations is for him to distribute land to his subordinates. The more land he gives, the more power he gains.

6. The Feudal lord in essence is the government; it is dependent of the sharing of power between the lord and his subordinates.

7. One very clear sign of decay in a feudal system is the feudal lords embracing the idea of government! In other words, if they feel a need for change, something is wrong.

8. Conversely when Feudalism is at its peak, the Barons never join in rule, they rule over their own territory in an independent fashion.

III. Submission of Lords and the Growth of Power:

A. The continuity of Feudalism is fueled by the continuous absorption of lesser lords; this submission can be a gain in power for both groups. The vassals gain wealth and protection the lord gains both, in addition to political power.

B. In return for this protection the lords and the lesser lords engage in Mutual Protection which is where the Knights on the hierarchy come into play. In exchange for land they will provide the lord with men for protection.

C. This is one of the many factors that fueled the Crusades.

IV. A disintegration of Feudalism:

A. The institution will break down when the system reaches a point where the feudal lord receives more demand from a higher authority (king) and fewer services and mutual protection from the lesser lords/vassals and serfs.

B. It is during these times where a resurgence of political powers by a dominant leader a king, in the mold of Charlemagne. One of the things that made his reign so impressive was his ability to bring the feuds under one supreme authority.

C. Two stages of Feudalism

1. A period of high lord power based on high vassal support and low royal influence

2. A period of low lord power based on high royal power and low vassal support

D. Two negative forces on Feudalism:

1. Roman legal tradition: the tradition of laws made it difficult to subjugate people.

2. Christian preference: the preference from Rome favored a monarchy.

V. Why did Feudalism surface in Europe

A. When Rome was at its best they had a very distant empire. They obviously had the overall authority, however it did open up room for large scale independence on the hands of landowners, small and large alike, that formed the basis of Feudalism.

B. When Rome collapsed in 476 AD, this passed the torch to the Feudal lords. In a sense because no one individual was eager enough to carry the torch from Rome. It was going to be difficult and unprofitable to unite all of these fractured tribes, so they said…Why bother?

C. Thus, decentralized Feudalism was the order of the day.

D. Another reason was the large threat that reigned down from northern Europe, from the Vikings. This threat forced the hand of Feudalism.

1. Makes the achievements of dominant kings like Charlemagne more impressive!

E. The incredible diversity of Western Europe including the Germanic tribes also made this the most viable option. Localized leadership based on class. Governments that were informal and flexible.

VI. The impact of Feudalism on later political institutions: (political history)

A. An energetic and innovative feudal lord could and did often provide significant change.

B. Committees enacted to solve problems often became permanent fixtures in government.

C. Provided a Paradigm for social institutions.

D. Issued a new challenge to the future: How to deal with class, diversity, and government

E. Its imperfections (there were many) paved the way for later political experimentation and political thought, particularly during the enlightenment.

· Feudalism tends to appear in the absence of a dominant political and economic authority as was the case in the late first millennium after the fall of Rome in 476 AD.

· Kings could survive only if they had enough lords and vassals to form armies for protection.

· Relationship summed up in the oath of the nobles at Aragon to the feudal king…”We who are as good as you swear to you, who are no better than we, to accept you as our king and sovereign lord, provided you obverse all our statues and laws; and if not no.”

· Expresses the mutual reality of this relationship

· The oath fit England very well as it had been in constant strife to ensure this balance of power.

· The Great Charter…forced up on King John in 1215. It is a landmark of democracy in that it is vital to the preservation of the balance of power of feudalism. It limits the power of the monarch and saw that he stayed within the law.

· As long as this balance was preserved there would be neither despotism nor anarchy. Countries of the day either went absolutist like France or broke up into unrecognizable principalities like Germany.

· The Rise of Parliament again dates back to the 12^th century AD as local nobles began sending Knights to the capital London to ensure that the King had their local region in his ear. Again a relationship based on reciprocity as the King did this not out of benevolence but out of economic (taxation) necessity.

· Taxation used largely to fund wars in France that the king was fighting because he had claims in the neighboring region.

· Parliament began as an extension of the Kings Court. Knights formed what we call a Lower House (commons) where as the nobility formed what we call the upper house the (house of Lords). In time a leading, vocal member of the commons became representative to the King and he became known as speaker.

· In order to prevent the slow down of business, anti-arrest privileges were soon established. Continuity in Government.

· Commons will not be for a long time a representative institution in that it will not truly represent a cross section of British citizenry.

· It’s role was largely that expressed in the Magna Carta and that is to block the power of the Kings…to act as a check if you will.

· Henry VIII will also enhance the power and prestige of the Parliament. Story of Henry the VIII and his lack of a male heir…break from Rome etc…

· Parliament became very important in that it was necessary to have their strength and support in his ambitious break from the papacy.

· In the wake of the black Plague and the split with Henry, and the Great Schism, a weakened Rome again will contribute to the strengthening of the conflict between Parliament and King in that it will create a Divine Right…going right around the papacy.

· Parliament will emerge the winner out of the several centuries of chaos…Trouble started with James I, who was an absolutist…James came directly in conflict with the reformation movement of the Puritans. Then the last straw as he attempted to obtain taxes without the consent of Parliament. After the passing of James, Charles his son trekked a similar path will similar unpopular results and that is unsuccessful campaigns abroad and attempts at taxation. The English Civil War of 1642-48 was testament to the growing power of the Parliament as they formed an army defeated the Royalists and beheaded the King.

· The beheading of Charles gave rise to England’s Republic (headed by no monarch) phase…since Charles had no head after 1649, and they certainly weren’t interested in any family heirs it became obvious that England needed a new direction…Oliver Cromwell will fill this void. Problems grew worse in England in order to restore order four years after the death of Charles I, Cromwell was bestowed the order of Lord Protector (uncrowned king, no bloodline). Cromwells regime became a military dictatorship for England.

· Parliamentary power will again be increased as the Kings son Charles II will be reinstated after the Cromwell disaster. England moves closer to the modern age as there is a monarch but one with little power due to the dominance of Parliament.

· Charles attempts to control Parliament…not a good idea. He was secretly pro-catholic, the moral equivalent to being a Vikings/Bears fan in Green Bay and he issued a series of laws known as Declaration of Indulgences in which he eased the restrictions passed against Catholics and other non Anglicans. We might see this as tolerance, Parliament saw it is heresy, a return to Catholicism, a betrayal of Parliamentary Authority. As his brother James II took over after the untimely death of Charles II, the openly boisterous Catholic King attempted similar reforms and was shortly therefore after allowed to escape in the “Bloodless/Glorious Revolution” of 1689. At which time, the Anglican Daughter of James and her husband were allowed to assume the thrown. At this time Parliament passes the key legislation The Bill of Rights which outlines the importance of Parliament in England.

· Parliament had truly established themselves as supreme, in that they had equal footing with the king and had established the trend of removing a king by force or otherwise.

· Appointment of the Hanover family led by George I is a clear departure from the past and issues a new age in British Politics…that is a system with a figurehead King and a strong parliament. Story of George…couldn’t speak English, preferred Hanover. Ruled through “advisors” or a cabinet left in England. Out of this cabinet we will see the Prime Minister. George III will provide his family with a little embarrassment by losing control of their colonial empire! This defeat again only reasserted parliamentary power. Prime Minister became the key source of power and would not have to answer to the king but only to commons! Leader of largest party, shall be Prime Minister.

·

The Key Institutions:

• Constitution: Is the British Constitution, written or unwritten? It tends to be both in that it is a collection of practices, habits, traditions and a few written laws of Parliament…as Edmund Burke said…it is a product of centuries of political habits and philosophy in constant evolution”

• Fusion of Powers, where as the United States has always and will always advocate a separation of Powers in Britain the powers are fused. There is no clear distinction between the executive and legislative branches. Cabinet fuses these functions. Cabinet power comes from support of a majority party in parliament.

• Monarch: formal powers are small. In theory he selects the Prime Minister (precedent began by Queen Victoria) but in fact appoints the leader of the Majority Party. Other powers are informal: power of persuasion as a figurehead, symbolism as a link to the past. Represents the tradition that is needed to survive.

• Cabinet: combining office. Consists of the Prime Minister and 16-18 cabinet offices, the number depends on the need of dated posts. Inner cabinet…5-8 of the most important cabinet offices. Role of the PM, most powerful politician, head of the majority party. Head of the cabinet…first among equals…
• Cabinet is based on the concept of solidarity…meaning that all decisions are unanimous once they are reached and they are made on the degree of anonymity. Public discussion of any type is not allowed. The meetings are held in absolute secrecy.

• Parliament: based largely on the concept of adversarial relationships between political parties. Bicameral Body
• Body 1: Upper HouseàThe House of Lords, largely ceremonial, does conduct debates. Hereditary not done by election.
• Body 2: Lower HouseàThe House of Commons, 3 main functions. 1. Trains future leadership of party and nation. 2. Enact legislation 3. Permanent press conference, opposition fringe groups attack the majority.
• Role of the press: a homogeneous society coupled with a responsible press that focuses on the mistakes of American celebrities and the debate in Parliament.
• Legislative Process: text of proposed law (100/yr) most come from ministers…link to party and government. See table 11.3

• Party Government: the British government is a party government in that it implements the will of the party. The parties are very cohesive and do not wither under the strains of factionalism that grip American political parties. Each party will offer a program, the people will vote on candidates in their region based on the party program…vastly different than the American popularity contest. MP’s vote along party lines otherwise they are removed and the party is damaged.
• Electoral Law: 1 MP/89,000 people. No primary system due to the uncertain electoral calendar which drives the campaigns. There is no fixed term there is a maximum term of five years for an MP…elections are called by the Prime Minister at any time during their term and automatically the clock starts on when the next election is to be held. Each government is countered by a “shadow government” an opposition party government that is ready to step in the event of a vote of no confidence or a victory in a called election. In fact the leader of the opposition party, the PM JR. is a paid position as it points to stability.

• Political Parties: Two major parties at all times, the government in essence is designed to be a two party system that is constantly pushed by periphery parties. Two main parties: Party whips very important in keeping up relationship between national and local party organization and the PM and the party rank and file. Placate the disgruntled.
• Labour Party: controlled by trade unions, funding and candidates. Elements of Robert Owenism (equality of labor), minimum standard of living. Party goal: “secure for the producers by hand or brain the full fruits of their industry and the most equitable distribution there of that may be possible upon the basis of the common ownership of the means of production and the best obtainable system of popular administration and control of industry and service. Elements of Marxism, although level varies throughout the party. Domestic Policy: Nationalization of industries, taxation of unearned income, progressive income tax, universal social welfare, civil rights protection. Foreign Policy, mainstream, very much suspicious of NATO and Nuclear Weapons, in favor of disarmament and historically against the EU. See reading
• Conservative party: tends to mirror her US counterparts in that she believes in the rule of talent and is in favor of vertical class integration and an unregulated free market economy. In favor of EU and global involvement.

• Other party issues:
• Campaign finance: each candidate pays his or her own way with contributions limited to 25k lbs annually.
• Spoils system: none, it is a society based on the basis of merit and civil service examinations. System remarkably stable in that low level bureaucrats in CS don’t leave with party, ensures continuity.
• Changes in policy usually occur and are communicated on the basis of communication between…MPàLocal associationàcentral party. Voter votes for platform expressed in this matter not the MP

• Local Government: Britain is a Unitary Government, thus the vast amount of power is at the National level and it is not shared. However, for the purpose of effective administration it is imperative that the localities have some governance. The process of local and regional governments is a complex issue in British Politics. It has been under enormous flux since the 19^th century. The fundamental questions: How many tiers? Level of authority? Method of funding? These questions can be answered in the following. British local authority is based on the county council, district councils and parish councils. The individual parts usually work together and do not wield an inordinate amount of legitimate power…for example they will deal with very localized issues such as parish traffic, or district sanitation but on a whole this is about where there level of influence ends. The powers given to these local authorities is based on the power enumerated to them by the Parliament and in all honesty, Parliament has not given them an extraordinary amount of power. The elections of local councilman is based on party lines, although unlike power at the national level these elections are much more reliant on the personality of the candidates pursuing office and can be quite entertaining. Although like elections in the US turnout is low as it widely realized that without the consent of Parliament the fluxuations in the level of local autonomy is minimal.
• Funding: the local authorities are funded in one of several ways. The largest (55%) being from central government grants (rate support grant), local revenue coming in the form of taxation on property, and the smallest: income from services provided. The level of funding is a major party issue because as can be expected Labour districts tend to outspend their conservative counterparts…thus localized funding is always being tailored on the basis of national governmental tides.
• The Governments of the other levels of English Government…Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales are similar.
• Regional governments consist of some regional offices of the government department’s…example health and communication.

• The Bureaucracy: Historically dated to the Middle Ages. Provides a course of action for Feudalism.
• Function: To implement political decisions.
• Six Characteristics:
• 1. Differentiation of functions.
• 2. Objective qualifications: exhibit of expertise
• 3. Objectivity of performance: no favoring of party programs
• 4. Centralization of authority
• 5. Precision: good records
• 6. Discretion: officials keep acts secret.

• Interest Groups: very different from the US in one key way…the point of entry. In British politics due to it’s rigid party system an interest group can exert it’s influence and if it is unsuccessful lobbying the executive…they are unsuccessful. It is not big business as it is in Washington where campaign finance is so important to our legislative process. MP Lobbying is largely fruitless and an admission of failure. Britain enjoys two types of interest groups.
• Sectional Interest Groups: profession, issue based, larger focus
• Promotional Interest Groups: one time event, smaller focus
• Judicial Politics:
• No check on Parliamentary power in the form of a court issuing judicial review.
• Function of British Judiciary: apply the law not decide on it’s desirability or correctness. Judges tend to be conservative in the sense that they feel it is Parliament not the courts that should change unjust laws.
• Puts a great strain on government with no checks but Fairness is a hallmark of the judicial system for 2 reasons. 1. Common law heritage is so entrenched. 2. Not political appointments most are appointed by the Lord Chancellor.
• Appointed and maintained by good behavior retirement is age 75 and can only be dismissed on the basis of both houses…never occurred.
• 80% educated at Oxford or Cambridge
• EEC membership has altered their judicial system in the regard that it is responsible for common market treaties and laws.